Origins | Factors | Effects | References |
Bone resorption | TGF-β1 | Induce endothelial progenitor cell and osteoprogenitor migration and chondrocyte hypertrophy and apoptosis | 42 60 70 |
IGF-1 | Induce chondrocyte anabolism and prevent chondrocyte maturation and apoptosis | 71–73 | |
Ca-Pi | Induce chondrocyte catabolism | 74 | |
Preosteoclast | PDGF-BB | Modulate chondrocytes through abnormal angiogenesis | 61 |
Exosomal let-7a-5p | Promote the hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes by targeting Smad2 | 75 | |
Mature osteoclast | Exosomal let-7a-5p | Promote the hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes by targeting Smad2 | 75 |
Type H endothelial cell | MMP-9, RANKL | Stimulate osteoclast migration to indirectly affect chondrocytes | 56 |
Mature osteoblast | IL-6, PGE2 | Enhance osteoclast formation to indirectly regulate chondrocytes | 43–45 |
VEGF | Stimulate angiogenesis and osteoclast recruitment to indirectly affect chondrocytes | 46 47 | |
RANKL | Stimulate osteoclast recruitment and differentiation to indirectly regulate chondrocytes | 46 47 | |
MMP-9 | Promote osteoclast recruitment to indirectly affect chondrocytes | 43 | |
SLIT3, TGF-β1 | Induce subchondral angiogenesis to indirectly affect chondrocytes | 57–59 | |
Osteocyte | VEGF, TGF-β1 | Stimulate angiogenesis to indirectly regulate chondrocytes | 33 34 41 |
RANKL | Induce osteoclast recruitment and differentiation to indirectly modulate chondrocytes | 33 34 | |
Hypertrophic chondrocyte | IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α | Induce osteoclast differentiation directly or indirectly | 76–81 |
RANKL, VEGF | Induce osteoclast chemotaxis and differentiation | 82 83 | |
HMGB1 | Promote osteoclast recruitment to indirectly affect chondrocytes | 84 85 | |
Senescent chondrocyte | SASP | Promote osteoclast chemotaxis and differentiation | 86 87 |
Apoptotic chondrocyte | CXCL12 | Enhance osteoclast recruitment and differentiation | 91–93 |
Necrotic chondrocyte | DAMPs | Promote osteoclast formation | 94 95 |